uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

uAbstract

uFigure captions

uRegional geology

uBasin tectonics

uSalt domains

uHalokinetic history

uReferences

Figure Captions

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Regional Geology 

The geological evolution of Yemen was driven by the plate motions that broke Pangea apart in the Mesozoic and formed the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, and the Arabian Peninsula in the Cenozoic. The stratigraphy and regional geology of Yemen was established by detailed work of Beydoun (1964), Powers et al. (1966), Beydoun and Greenwood (1968), Hughes and Clarke (1988), Beydoun (1989), Haitham and Nani (1990), Paul (1990), Hughes and Beydoun (1992), Bott et al. (1992), Schlumberger (1992), and Beydoun et al. (1993). Hydrocarbon exploration activity became extensive after 1990 and provided considerable amount of subsurface data, which allowed revised synthesis of basin evolution in Yemen, such as the work of Redfern and Jones (1995), Ellis et al. (1996) and Beydoun et al. (1996). The petroleum geology was summarized in Csato et al. (2001).  

Two major tectonic periods occurred that formed the tectonic evolution of Yemen. The first events took place in the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous, when three rift basins developed within Gondwana land: the Marib-Shabwa, the Sir-Sayun, and the Jeza-Qamar basin (Figure 1). The second major tectonic activity in the Cenozoic was related to the opening of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea and the collision of the Arabian Peninsula with Eurasia, respectively. The Mesozoic rifting and sedimentary basin evolution is well constrained (e.g., Redfern and Jones, 1995; Beydoun et al., 1996), while the complex, polyphase tectonics in the Tertiary (Ellis et al., 1996) is much less understood.  

At the end of the syn-rift phase, the Marib-Shabwa basin became isolated from the sea maintaining a periodically opened marine passage, which supplied saline water into the basin. The geographic separation and the warm climate gave rise to massive evaporation. The deposited salt (Sabatayn Formation) produced various halokinetic features during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic that has been the subject of this study.

Basin Tectonics 

The study area is a sub-basin of the Marib-Shabwa rift in Yemen (Figure 1). The basin can be divided into two main segments: a southward sloping Half-Graben and a north-south-oriented Full-Graben segment (Figure 2). The full-graben is composed of smaller scale features: half-grabens 1, -2, and –3; tectonic accommodation zones between them; and a full-graben along the southern border fault.  

The Paleogene brought about a major tectonic reactivation in association with the opening of the Gulf of Aden. Former Jurassic faults wererejuvenated, and eventually new tectonic elements formed. The extensional field slightly rotated anti-clockwise according to our observations, which is in correspondence with the orientation of half-grabens observed by Fantozzi (1996). Following the Paleogene events, intense volcanism occurred in the Miocene associated with renewed extensions of changing orientation in a clockwise direction (Huchon et al., 1991; Davison et al., 1994; Thouché et al., 1997). Later the entire area underwent a regional emergence with considerable erosion during the Neogene (Davison et al., 1994).  

The Marib Basin was isolated from the sea in Tithonian time, and the continental rift became an evaporating environment. The salt precipitation occurred at the beginning of post-rift phase following Jurassic rifting. Differential loading of the overburden and some fault activity initiated salt mobilization and formation of initial pillows in the Early Cretaceous. Diapiric growth was maintained by passive downbuilding through the Cretaceous. Intense Paleogene faulting induced reactive diapirism that in places evolved into active growth (using the terminology of Vendeville and Jackson, 1992; Jackson and Vendeville, 1994 and Rowan, 1995).  

Using subsurface data interpretations, this study has revealed a strong relationship between basin tectonics and salt dynamics. Special salt features are connected to tectonic positions in the Half-Graben and in the Full-Graben, respectively.

Salt Domains 

Spatial zonation of salt structure domains is largely determined by basin tectonics. Mostly Tertiary tectonics induced salt diapirism; consequently, salt structures primarily evolved along Tertiary faults. Since the Paleogene tectonics developed by reactivation of Jurassic faults, the salt domains show close relationship with Jurassic basin structures as well.  

The Half-Graben segment is divided into two main salt domains: the Hinge Margin Salt Complex and the Border Diapir Complex (Figures 2 and 3). The former domain covers the hinge margin and the hanging wall of the Half-Graben, while the Border Complex refers to connections with the southern border fault. Salt Rollers Zone associated with young growth faults and elongated Salt Pillow Zone on the hanging wall are distinguished; Border Diapir Zone tilted by footwall uplift and a Normal Fault-Controlled Diapir Zone surround the southern border fault.

 The Border Diapir Complex is extended into the Full-Graben segment along a border-parallel, internal full-graben. The deepest portion of the main Full-Graben is occupied by an elongated diapir (Axial Diapir Complex), which shows varying structural characters along strike. In the middle, it is Reverse-Fault-Bounded in response to local contractional effects in the overburden. Southwestward and northeastward, the diapir becomes Normal-Fault-Flanked, indicating local extensional stresses. Similar change in diapir character was observed in the Border Complex. Tilted border diapirs transform into normal- fault-bounded diapirs along Tertiary border-subparallel faults. Accommodation or transfer zones among small-scale half-grabens are marked by normal or strike-slip faults and are associated with normal faulted Asymmetric, or non-faulted Symmetric diapirs. Internal horsts are covered by flat salt features: Horst Pillows (Figures 2 and 3).

Halokinetic History 

The halokinetic history can be divided into two main stages: Cretaceous passive growth and Paleogene reactive to active diapirism. Seismic data provide evidence for early mobilization of salt after its deposition in the Early Cretaceous. Salt pillows formed first under the effect of differential loading and partly of local fault slip motion. During the rest of the Cretaceous, the pillows slowly grew in a passive way.  

Diapiric growth was accelerated by the Paleogene tectonic activity. Faults weakened and broke the overburden, producing pathways for the moving salt. Additionally, fault tilting enhanced the differential loading. Once the overburden thinned by erosion due to diapiric arching, the salt broke its cover. Paleogene tectonics brought about characteristically reactive diapiric processes with subsequent active growth.

References 

Beydoun, Z.R., 1964, The stratigraphy and structure of the eastern Aden Protectorate. Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources Supp. Ser., Bull. Supp. v. 5. HMSO, London

Beydoun, Z.R. and Greenwood, J.E.G.W., 1968, Aden Protectoate and Dhufar, in Lexique Stratigraphique International, Vol. III., Asie (L. Dubertret, ed.), CNRS, Paris, Fasc. 1062 p.

Beydoun, Z.R., Bamahmoud, M.O., and Nani, A.S.O., 1993, The Qishn Formation, Yemen: lithofacies and hydrocarbon habitat: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 10, p. 364-372.

Beydoun Z.R., As-Saruri, M., and Baraba, R.S., 1996, Sedimentary basins of the Republic of Yemen: their structural evolution and geological characteristics: Revue Institut Francais Petrole, v. 51, p. 763-775.

Bott, W.F., Smith, B.A., Oakes, G., Sikander, A.H., and Ibraham, A.I., 1992, The tectonic framework and regional hydrocarbon prospectivity of the Gulf of Aden: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 15, p. 211-243.

Csato, I., Habib, A., Kiss, K., Koncz, I., Kovács, Z., L•rincz. K., and Milota, K., 2001, Play concepts of oil exploration in Yemen. Oil and Gas Journal, v. 99.23, p. 68-74.

Davison, I., Al-Kadasi, M., Al-Khirbash, S., Al-Subbary, A.K., Baker, J., Blakey, S., Bosence, D., Dart, C., Heaton, R., McClay, K., Menzies, M., Nichols, G., Owen, G., and Yelland, A., 1994, Geological evolution of the southeastern Red Sea rift margin, Republic of Yemen: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106, p. 1474-1493.

Ellis, A.C., Kerr, H.M., Cornwell, C.P., and Williams, D.O., 1996, A tectonostratigraphic framework for Yemen and its implications for hydrocarbon potential: Petroleum Geoscience, v. 2, p. 29-42.

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Huchon, P., Jestin, F., Cantagrel, J.M., Gaulier, J.M., Al Khirbash, S., and Gafaneh, A., 1991, Extensional deformations in Yemen since Oligocene and the Africa-Arabia- Somalia triple junction: Annales Tectonicae, v. 5, p. 141-163.

Hughes, G.W., and Clarke, M.W., 1988, Stratigraphy and rock unit nomenclature in the oil-producing area of interior Oman: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 11, p. 5-60.

Hughes, G.W., and Beydoun, Z.R., 1992, The Red Sea-Gulf of Aden: biostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy and paleoenvironments: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 15, p. 135-156.

Jackson, M.P.A., and Vendeville, B.C., 1994, Regional extension as a geological trigger for diapirism: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106, p. 57-73.

Paul, S.K., 1990, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen: a future oil province, in Brooks, J., ed., Classic Petroleum Provinces. London, Special Publications of the Geological Society, v. 50, p. 329-339.

Powers, R.W., Ramirez, L.F., Redmond, C.D., and Elberg, E.L., 1966, Sedimentary Geology of Saudy Arabia, in Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 560-D.

Rowan, M.G., 1995, Structural styles and evolution of allochthonous salt, central Louisiana outer shelf and upper slope, in M.P.A. Jackson, D.G. Roberts, and S. Snelson, eds., Salt tectonics: A global perspective: AAPG Memoir 65, p. 199-228.

Redfern, P., and Jones, J.A., 1995, The interior rifts of the Yemen - analysis of basin structure and stratigraphy in a regional plate tectonic context: Basin Research, v. 7, p. 337-356.

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Touché, F., Vidal, G., and Gratier, J.P., 1997, Finite deformation and displacement fields on the southern Yemen margin using satellite images, topographic data and a restoration method: Tectonophysics, v. 281, p. 173-193.

Vendeville, B.C., and Jackson, M.P.A., 1992, The rise of diapirs during thin-skinned extension: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 9, p. 331-353.

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